History+and+Theory+of+Childrearing


 * __Lev Vygotsky__**

Lev Vygotsky’s theory is focused on the cognitive development of humans. His theory emphasizes the belief that the development of the mind occurs during social experiences. Through social experiences, children learn to master mental tools such as language, writing, and symbols. These mental tools help humans to think and understand one another, as well as improve upon their abilities to attain higher mental capabilities (Vygotsky, 1978).

A key element in Vygotsky’s theory is the Zone of Proximal Development, or the difference between what a child can do alone and what a child can learn to do with help from a more highly skilled person. When a child cannot perform a skill on his/her own, an adult can scaffold, or provide the minimal assistance needed to help the child become independent. It is within the Zone of Proximal Development and through the use of scaffolding that children learn to master the mental tools needed to communicate and achieve higher mental functioning

The Zone of Proximal Development has been particularly important and influential in education. When Vygotsky introduced the concepts of the Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding, professionals in the education field realized that they should not teach to the current level of the child. Instead, educators needed to recognize the ability level of the child, but teach to a level above that. By knowing where the child’s ability level is at and where they want the child’s ability level to be, teachers are pinpointing the Zone of Proximal Development. Then, through scaffolding (providing minimal help to the child) teachers can take the child from his/her current ability level to a higher ability level.

Not only is this concept important for teachers, but it is also important for parents and professionals working with young children. By understanding the concepts of the Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding, professionals can design effective interventions to encourage the positive development of youngsters. Parents can use these concepts to teach their children in everyday settings. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). //Mind in Society//. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

**__Erik Erikson__**

Erik Erikson (born in German in 1902) developed a theory of psychosocial development. His theory expands on the work done by Freud and is unique because it encompasses the entire lifespan of humans. The theory consists of eight stages, each corresponding with a general age at which the stage occurs. Within each stage, the person is faced with a conflict that must be resolved. If it is not resolved positively, it is assumed that the person will face struggles relating to this conflict throughout his/her lifetime until it is resolved. Below is a chart of Erikson’s eight stages, including the age at which the stage occurs and the conflict to be resolved.


 * **__Stage (a.k.a. Conflict to be resolved)__** || **__Age at which it occurs__** ||
 * 1. Trust vs. Mistrust || Birth – 18 months ||
 * 2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt || 18 months – 3 years ||
 * 3. Initiative vs. Guilt || 3 years – 6 years ||
 * 4. Industry vs. Inferiority || 6 years – 12 years ||
 * 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion || 12 years – 18 years ||
 * 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation || 19 years – 40 years ||
 * 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation || 40 years – 65 years ||
 * 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair || 65 years – Death ||

Erikson’s theory has been particularly influential in counseling. Oftentimes, counselors will talk to the patient to determine where his issues lie. For instance, maybe an adult patient is struggling in his new, intimate relationship because he is unable to trust the other person in the relationship. The counselor would infer that this patient did not positively resolve the Trust vs. Mistrust issue as an infant. Upon realizing this, the counselor might have the patient talk to the person who was his primary caregiver as an infant to resolve the issues of trust. Beyond this example, it is important for parents and professionals to know this theory so they understand the issues their children and/or patients are facing. When parents and professionals can understand the developmental struggles and milestones of children, they are better prepared to help the children positively resolve these developmental issues.